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Fundamentalism, Terrorism, and Religious
Militancy
by Naji Abi-Hashem, PhD
What are the real causes of fundamentalism? Can we truly
define terrorism? How do we understand religious extremism?
Is there a good psychological interpretation of peace
and war?
In many parts of the world, especially in the Middle
East, the situation is extremely unstable, highly complicated,
and profoundly disturbing. Many observers seriously wonder
whether the region is destined for chronic devastation,
trauma, and destruction. With the rise of radical groups
everywhere, the good-will people and moderate elements
of society seem to be gradually losing their voices and
influence. That is especially true in the seemingly hopeless
Israeli-Palestinian situation.
The world mass media has been currently flooded, or rather
obsessed, with topics related to terrorism and Islamic
militancy. Obviously, the shadow and disease of terrorism
have invaded all aspects of our modern life. However,
when we think of terrorism, we have to think of a large
spectrum of ideas, concepts, and meanings. Terrorism is
a broad phenomenon which has a complex nature, multiple
causes, wide functions, and a variety of manifestations.
Terrorism is a difficult concept to define. It is a compound,
confusing, and misleading term. There is no total agreement
either, even on international level, on what constitutes
a terrorist. To a large degree, terrorism
is a matter of perspective. It depends on the group’s
position on political, social, cultural, economical, religious
issues and on the dynamics of regional and world powers.
For one group, terrorists are radicals, lawless, separatists,
fundamentalists, revolutionists, inhumane, extremists,
raging fanatics, cold-blooded killers, evildoers, barbarians,
sociopathic murderers, fascists, destroyers of civilization,
etc. For another group, terrorists are actually determined
activists, freedom fighters, legitimate resistance people,
strivers for justice, refusers of oppression, pure nationalists,
opposers of harsh dominance, rebukers of corruption, social
reformers, carriers of a supreme cause, executers of divine
missions, et cetera. (Abi-Hashem, in press). To them,
these causes are high moral duties and great spiritual
virtues. Naturally, such underlying passions will feed
into their love for martyrdom and sacrificial death.
Fundamentalism and radicalism are not only associated
with religious traditions and doctrinal faiths but are
manifested in almost every human endeavor. Since religion
is inseparable from culture, extremism has largely become
a part of the ethnopolitical agenda and socioeconomic
structure.
Roberts (2002) explained that some militant political
groups used the word terrorist proudly as “they
framed their arguments in terms of a narrow conception
of morality, held a simplified view of the world and showed
little interest in prudential considerations. They propagated
what has remained the common terrorist delusion that dramatic
and violent acts would spark off revolution” (Changes
of meaning, 2).
The French author Gayraud (1988) defined terrorism in
terms of its methods rather than its political, philosophical,
or ideological stance thus allowing the stigmatization
of a definite enemy. According to Gayraud, terrorism is
viewed as a new form of warfare that blurs the distinction
between periods of hostilities and periods of calm or
peace. Ironically with time, the status of some groups
change from being terrorists to being legitimate, or even
friendly (and back to being terrorists), as the winds
of politics and strategic alliances also change over time.
Although the word Islaam in Arabic has the connotation
of peace, basically it means a total submission or surrender.
Islam calls for a complete surrender to the God, the only
One, Transcendent, and Most High. Since Allah is remote
and invisible, true and faithful Muslims can only follow
His laws and teachings as brought by Mohammed, who, to
them, is God’s closing Messenger and the Seal of
Prophets. Mohammed is portrayed as a deep thinker and
a great reformer. He diligently learned about spiritual
life and piety and boldly confronted paganism and social
disorder of his day. His reputation quickly spread and
his message was broadly embraced. The phase of pre-Islamic
Arabia, al-jahileyya was referred to as a time
of ignorance before Mohammed introduced “the true
way.” Although there were monotheist tribes around
the area, which Mohammed respected and was attracted to
their faiths, he strived to unify all Arabia and Muslims
under one banner.
Discussing the factors of faith and power in Islamic
politics, Mortimer (1982) concluded that, in short, there
is no single form of Islam. Instead, there are complexities
and diversities within Islam that the West must appreciate
in order to respond wisely to Muslim movements which are
influencing the power-rivalry in the world today. However,
Mozaffari (1996 as quoted in Storey & Utter 2002)
defined Islamic fundamentalism or Islamism
as a militant and anti-modernist movement growing out
of a belief that Islam is simultaneously a religion (Deen),
a living world (Dunya), and a form of governing state
(Dawla). Therefore, “the Islamic fundamentalists…
believe in the absolute indivisibility of the three famous
D’s. This characteristic marks the main difference
between them and the liberal Muslims…” (p.
129).
The concept of Jihad is very polarized and controversial
one. It has both a soft and a strong connotation. Although
there are similar notions to Jihad and parallel
ideas to the Holy War in other faiths, religions,
and theological thoughts (Judaism, Christianity, Buddhism,
Hinduism, etc.), many scholars believe that the concept
of Jihad in Islam itself is much more distinct
and pronounced.
Virtually, Jihad can take several shapes, forms,
or modalities. It can be applied to an individual’s
quest toward purity and piety, to a community’s
striving toward reformation and renewal, or to a nation’s
fight against derivation and corruption. Radical groups
rely on their own misinterpretation of Jihad
to justify their intentions, severely splitting and perceiving
certain others as bad-evil objects. Consequently, extreme
forms of Jihad appeal to those with impulsive
tendencies, rigid mentalities, and innate needs to be
counted worthy (cf. (Abi-Hashem, in press).
On one hand, the moderate, secular, humanist, and liberal
Muslims are trying to promote dialogue, openness, assimilation,
and coexistence within the Middle East and the Arabic-Muslim
communities. On the other hand, super conservatives, hard-line
fundamentalists, and Islamic extremists are trying to
promote radical activism, complete purism, sociocultural
confrontation with the West, and even confrontational
militancy. According to Woodberry (2002), “Islamist
movements normally arise from the interaction of feeling
of trauma, local conditions, and a millennial ideology”
(p. 5). Moreover, to the radical Islamist, other people
who cause harm, oppression, and injustice are enemies
of Faith. So, the true Muslim should strive even with
his or her life for the cause of Allah until justice and
purity prevail.
It is important to note here, that every major conflict
or civil war in history included aspects of intentional
trauma and horrifying acts in one way or another and to
one degree or another. Even modern governments use such
methods to punish or inflict pain on others whom they
perceive as enemies. Unfortunately, some forms of violence
and terror are being justified and labeled as self-defense
or legitimate retaliation only because the executors have
the power, the means, the visibility, and the upper hand
over the weaker group.
At other times, certain acts of violence and terror are
employed by minorities as an attempt to simply address
the major injustices and gross mistreatments practiced
by the dominant power. Smaller radical groups utilize
terrifying approaches in order to express their social
disobedience, begin a political revolution, gain an economical
trophy, or start a religious reformation. Frequently,
religious beliefs have been central to a group’s
cause. The ideology stems basically from theology and
evolves into a sociopolitical movement. The opposite is
also true! Therefore, theology can be used as a mere cover
to justify some ulterior motives, political agendas, personal
greed, or unconscious rage and aggression.
Finally, “there may be a form of action called
terrorism, but the labeling of individuals and movements
as ‘terrorist’ will remain complicated and
highly political” (Roberts, 2002, Variety of terrorism,
6). Some states quickly label any violent act as terrorism.
Others are reluctant to outlaw any terrorist activities
unless the real causes of terrorism are addressed. Yet,
other nations see these brutal and violent acts as a legitimate
“response to real grievances, and thereby insinuating
that it was justified” ( 6). Virtually, any internationally
agreed upon definition will serve only as a helpful guideline
for discussion, description, or decision--not as an ultimate
definition that provides a complete and comprehensive
understanding. There is an element about terrorism that
is quite abstract, and perhaps, will it always remain
so for many years to come.
References
| Abi-Hashem, N. (2004). Peace and war
in the Middle East: A psychopolitical |
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and sociocultural perspective. In F. M. Moghaddam
& A. J. Marsella (Eds.), Understanding terrorism:
Psychosocial roots, consequences, and interventions.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association
Press. |
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| Gayraud, J. F. (1988). Definir le terrorisme:
Est-ce possible, est-ce souhaitable? |
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(translated: Defining terrorism: Is it possible,
is it desirable?). Revue Internationale de
Criminologie et de Police Technique, 41, 185-202. |
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| Mortimer, E. (1982). Faith and power:
The politics of Islam. New York: |
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Random House. |
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| Roberts, A. (2002). Can we define terrorism?
Oxford today: The University |
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magazine. Retrieved November 6, 2002, from
http://www.oxfordtoday.ox.ac.uk/features/04.shtml |
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| Storey, J. W. & Utter, G. H. (2002).
Religion and politics: A reference handbook.
|
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Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio. |
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| Woodberry, J. D. (2002, Spring). Reflections
on Islamist terrorism. Fuller Focus, |
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10 (1), 4-6. Pasadena, CA: Fuller Theological
Seminary. |
Naji Abi-Hashem, PhD, DABPS, IABMCP, is a Lebanese American
clinical and cultural psychologist who is involved in
writing, lecturing, counseling, and international service.
He is an independent scholar and an associate with Venture
International and is currently based in Seattle, Washington.
© Copyright, Naji Abi-Hashem, PhD
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